Class 08 NCERT Chapters

Did you know that India has been the centre of learning since ancient times? How did we come to know about this? There are inscriptions on stones and copper, palm leaf records and our scriptures as evidences of the historic origins of learning in India.

An honest boy is on his way to school carrying money in his pocket to pay the school fees. The sight of crisp, syrupy jalebis in the market excites him and the coins in his pocket begin to jingle. After a long debate with himself, he yields to the sweet temptation.

Ranji discovers a pool in the forest and plunges into it for a swim. There is serious trouble between him and someone else over who has a right to the pool. A fight ensues. The first round ends in a draw.

Princess September, like each one of her numerous sisters, receives the gift of a parrot in a golden cage on her father’s birthday. The parrot dies, and by chance a singing bird comes in its place. The princess shows off her pet to the sisters who advise her to put it in a cage.

Every child is a potential achiever and is different from other children in her/his style of learning and area of interest. Read the interview that follows. It is based on a conversation between Ms Bela Raja, editor of Sparsh, a newsletter from the Resource Centre, The Valley School, Bangalore, and Mr Hafeez Contractor, one of India’s leading architects.

The Giant’s garden was beautiful, and children loved to play in it. The Giant, who was selfish, built a high wall round his lovely garden. Children did not enter the garden there after. Nor did Spring and Summer till the Giant experienced a change of heart.

There are many reasons why children have to work. Some help their family make a livelihood. Others, who run away from unhappy homes, need to support themselves. Children who have to work can’t go to school and play like other children of their age.

The world had just begun, and the animals were working for humans. There was one lazy animal that did nothing, and said nothing but ‘Humph’. Even the clever Djinn was at his wit’s end.

The first day of monsoon mist. And it’s strange how all the birds fall silent as the mist comes climbing up the hill. Perhaps that’s what makes the mist so melancholy; not only does it conceal the hills, it blankets them in silence too.

Cambridge was my metaphor for England, and it was strange that when I left it had become altogether something else, because I had met Stephen Hawking there.

Jody allowed his thoughts to drift back to the fawn. He could not keep it out of his mind. He had held it, in his dreams, in his arms. He slipped from the table and went to his father’s bedside. Penny lay at rest.

Major H.P.S. Ahluwalia was a member of the first successful Indian expedition to Mount Everest in 1965. How did he feel when he stood on the highest point in the world?

Do you have a good memory? Has your memory ever played any tricks on you? Forgetfulness often puts you in a tight spot. But forgetting a part of your life completely may drive you crazy. In this story, Bepin Babu goes nearly crazy because he cannot recollect his stay at Ranchi.

Here are some pictorial glimpses of the history of our country from 1757 to 1857.

A tsunami is a very large and powerful wave caused by earthquakes under the sea. On 26 December 2004, a tsunami hit Thailand and parts of India such as the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and the Tamil Nadu coast. Here are some stories of courage and survival.

There are some dates or periods of time in the history of the world that are so significant that everyone knows and remembers them.

It is people with their demands and abilities that turn them into resources. Hence, human resource is the ultimate resource. The way in which people are spread across the earth surface is known as the pattern of population distribution.

Secondary activities or manufacturing change raw materials into products of more value to people. Industry refers to an economic activity that is concerned with production of goods, extraction of minerals or the provision of services.

The transformation from a plant to a finished product involves three types of economic activities. These are primary, secondary and tertiary activities. Agriculture is a primary activity. It includes growing crops, fruits, vegetables, flowers and rearing of livestock.

Land is among the most important natural resources. It covers only about thirty per cent of the total area of the earth’s surface and all parts of this small percentage are not habitable. Land is used for different purposes such as agriculture, forestry, mining, building houses, roads and setting up of industries.

Resources are generally classified into natural, human made and human. Resources that are drawn from Nature and used without much modification are called natural resources.

Laws are necessary in many situations, whether this be the market, office or factory so as to protect people from unfair practices. The government has to ensure that the laws are implemented. This means that the law must be enforced.

Water is essential for life and for good health. Not only is it necessary for us to be able to meet our daily needs but safe drinking water can prevent many water-related diseases. The Constitution of India recognises the right to water as being a part of the Right to Life under Article 21.

The Constitution lays down the principles that make our society and polity democratic. They are defined in and through the list of Fundamental Rights that are an important part of the Constitution.

Adivasis - the term literally means ‘original inhabitants’ - are communities who lived, and often continue to live, in close association with forests.

Courts take decisions on a very large number of issues. It is the independence of the judiciary that allows the courts to play a central role in ensuring that there is no misuse of power by the legislature and the executive.

Created after 1947, the Indian Parliament is an expression of the faith that the people of India have in principles of democracy. These are participation by people in the decision-making process and government by consent.

The Indian Constitution allows individuals the freedom to live by their religious beliefs and practices as they interpret these. In keeping with this idea of religious freedom for all, India also adopted a strategy of separating the power of religion and the power of the State. Secularism refers to this separation of religion from the State.

In democratic societies, the Constitution often lays down rules that guard against this misuse of authority by our political leaders. In the case of the Indian Constitution, many of these laws are contained in the section on Fundamental Rights.

It led the people to ask a crucial question: what is this country of India and for whom is it meant? The answer that gradually emerged was: India was the people of India - all the people irrespective of class, colour, caste, creed, language, or gender. And the country, its resources and systems, were meant for all of them.

Have you ever thought of how children lived about two hundred years ago? Nowadays most girls from middle-class families go to school, and often study with boys. On growing up, many of them go to colleges and universities, and take up jobs after that. They have to be adults before they are legally married, and according to law, they can marry anyone they like, from any caste and community, and widows can remarry too.

In the earlier chapters you have seen how British rule affected rajas and nawabs, peasants and tribals. In this chapter we will try and understand what implication it had for the lives of students. For, the British in India wanted not only territorial conquest and control over revenues. They also felt that they had a cultural mission: they had to "civilise the natives", change their customs and values.

Since the mid-eighteenth century, nawabs and rajas had seen their power erode. They had gradually lost their authority and honour. Residents had been stationed in many courts, the freedom of the rulers reduced, their armed forces disbanded, and their revenues and territories taken away by stages. Many ruling families tried to negotiate with the Company to protect their interests. For example, Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi wanted the Company to recognise her adopted son as the heir to the kingdom after the death of her husband.

In 1895, a man named Birsa was seen roaming the forests and villages of Chottanagpur in Jharkhand. People said he had miraculous powers – he could cure all diseases and multiply grain. Birsa himself declared that God had appointed him to save his people from trouble, free them from the slavery of dikus (outsiders). Soon thousands began following Birsa, believing that he was bhagwan (God) and had come to solve all their problems.

On 12 August 1765, the Mughal emperor appointed the East India Company as the Diwan of Bengal. The actual event most probably took place in Robert Clive’s tent, with a few Englishmen and Indians as witnesses. But in the painting above, the event is shown as a majestic occasion, taking place in a grand setting.

Aurangzeb was the last of the powerful Mughal rulers. He established control over a very large part of the territory that is now known as India. After his death in 1707, many Mughal governors (subadars) and big zamindars began asserting their authority and establishing regional kingdoms. As powerful regional kingdoms emerged in various parts of India, Delhi could no longer function as an effective centre.

There was a time when historians were fascinated with dates. There were heated debates about the dates on which rulers were crowned or battles were fought. In the common-sense notion, history was synonymous with dates. You may have heard people say, “I find history boring because it is all about memorising dates.” Is such a conception true? History is certainly about changes that occur over time.

Light is reflected from all surfaces. Regular reflection takes place when light is incident on smooth, polished and regular surfaces. Diffused or irregular reflection takes place from rough surfaces.

Some objects can be charged by rubbing with other objects. There are two kinds of charges - positive charge and negative charge. Like charges repel and unlike charges attract
each other.

Some liquids are good conductors of electricity and some are poor conductors. Most liquids that conduct electricity are solutions of acids, bases and salts.

Sound is produced by vibrating objects. In human beings, the vibration of the vocal cords produces sound.

Friction opposes the relative motion between two surfaces in contact. It acts on both the surfaces. Friction depends on the nature of surfaces in contact.

Force could be a push or a pull. A force arises due to the interaction between two objects. Force has magnitude as well as direction.

Humans become capable of reproduction after puberty sets in. Children between the ages of 11 and 19 years are called adolescents. The onset of puberty brings about growth of the reproductive organs.

There are two modes by which animals reproduce. These are: (i) Sexual reproduction, and (ii) Asexual reproduction. Reproduction resulting from the fusion of male and female gametes is called sexual reproduction.

Wildlife sanctuary, national park and biosphere reserve are names given to the areas meant for conservation and preservation of forest and wild animals. Biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms in a specific area.

The substances which burn in air are called combustible. Oxygen (in air) is essential for combustion. During the process of combustion, heat and light are given out.

Coal, petroleum and natural gas are fossil fuels. Fossil fuels were formed from the dead remains of living organisms millions of years ago. Fossil fuels are exhaustible resources.

Microorganisms are too small and are not visible to the unaided eye. They can live in all kinds of environment, ranging from ice cold climate to hot springs and deserts to marshy lands.

In order to provide food to our growing population, we need to adopt certain agricultural practices. Same kind of plants cultivated at a place constitute a crop.